Part 1 of our analysis of Schliemann’s Ilios: a journey through the earliest layers of Troy, among archaic symbols and forgotten civilizations.
This article is the first in a series of insights dedicated to Heinrich Schliemann’s book Ilios. Through stratigraphic analysis of the finds and the author’s descriptions, we explore the levels of the city of Troy as they were uncovered during the excavations of the 19th century.
Below is a table useful for understanding what we will delve into throughout this series of articles. In this Part I, we examine the evidence Schliemann uncovered in the first two levels of modern stratigraphy.
| Modern Stratigraphy | Dating (approx.) | Name Given by Schliemann | Main Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Troy I | 3000–2600 BCE | First City | Archaic village with oval houses and simple pottery |
| Troy II | 2600–2250 BCE | Second and Third City | Second = burnt city with “Priam’s Treasure”; Third = reconstruction (now considered the same layer) |
| Troy III | 2250–2100 BCE | Fourth City | Post-reconstruction, less monumental |
| Troy IV | 2100–1950 BCE | Fifth City | Intermediate layer, little studied by Schliemann |
| Troy V | 1950–1700 BCE | Sixth City | Urban development without significant events |
| Troy VI | 1700–1250 BCE | Not clearly identified | Cyclopean walls; now considered a possible Achaean city |
| Troy VIIa | 1250–1180 BCE | Not clearly identified | Probable “Homeric Troy” destroyed around 1180 BCE |
| Troy VIIb–VIII | 1180–700 BCE | Seventh City | First post-destruction resettlement phase |
| Troy IX | 700 BCE–500 CE | Eighth City | Greek and Roman period, still visible today |
Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) became an archaeologist outside the academic path. Raised in poverty, he worked from a young age in a shop and, under very difficult conditions, taught himself over ten languages to access classical sources directly. These included Greek and Latin, as well as Russian, Dutch, Arabic, and Sanskrit. His goal was to prove that the city described by Homer was not merely a myth, as commonly believed at the time.
At the hill site of Hissarlik, in the Troad, he identified the superimposed remains of ten cities built one on top of the other. The oldest layers—now known as Troy I and II—reveal signs of a civilization that, 3,000 years before Christ, already mastered techniques, symbols, and complex architecture.
In the deepest layer, Troy I (ca. 3000–2600 BCE), Schliemann identified primitive houses, cylindrical urns, and stone idols. Among these, a bright red terracotta fragment, perfectly fired, stands out for its technical quality—anachronistic for the period. Similar objects in shape and symbolism appear in Mesopotamian and Aegean contexts, suggesting a network of common influences or origins.
But it is in Troy II (ca. 2600–2250 BCE) that the city reaches a new level of complexity. The cyclopean walls and paved streets suggest an organized society. Votive objects multiply, taking on unique forms. Lead idol no. 226 bears a swastika engraved in the genital area—a symbol at the time associated with regeneration, life force, and cyclical renewal.
The figure also has two downward-pointing horns, one of which is broken. This horned imagery may indicate a link to ancient fertility cults and possibly to early representations of the goddess Aphrodite. In pre-Hellenic and Eastern traditions, Aphrodite was often associated with animals such as goats and bulls and may have been worshipped in horned or zoomorphic forms.
Other artifacts, such as a massive diorite object with globular projections, continue to defy interpretation. Were they idols? Instruments? Cosmic symbols? Even Schliemann, despite lacking modern methodology, sensed their uniqueness.
The discovery of numerous owl-headed vases, some designed to be suspended, adds another layer of interpretation. The owl is the iconic attribute of the goddess Athena, and some of these artifacts seem to anticipate the association between symbolic animal and deity. In one of the most evocative observations, it is questioned whether the famous Athena glaukōpis—“with gleaming eyes”—was originally portrayed with an owl-like face: not metaphorically, but as a literal iconographic form. A round head, large eyes, and a frontal gaze.
Another connection to archaic symbolism emerges from the posture of the deities. Some idols and reliefs depict figures with feet firmly planted on a base, a solemn pose also seen in Egyptian art. This recalls descriptions of deities “descending from the sky” while maintaining a steady, upright stance—almost as if gliding down with feet held together. A motif that survives, secularized, in classical depictions of Hermes with winged sandals or in reliefs where divinities appear to float.
In this same direction, even an apparently secondary architectural detail becomes meaningful: the Caryatids of the Erechtheion, whose sculpted hairstyles were not merely decorative but served a structural function. The hair of the statues is carved as a rear supporting column, merging the human figure with architectural purpose—another example of how refined Greek art reworks deeply archaic motifs.
Troy II ends with a catastrophic event. A thick layer of ash, fused materials, and broken objects indicates a violent destruction—probably a large-scale fire. Schliemann and orientalist Burnouf analyzed the distribution of artifacts: most treasures were found in the southwestern sector, suggesting the direction of the flames. The heat was intense enough to melt some metal objects and to produce a “buée noire”—a black vapor that deeply penetrated the soil.
Within these layers, ritual-related items emerge: double-handled cups, like the δέπας ἀμφικύπελλον mentioned in the Iliad, and chimney-necked vases designed to be suspended. These elements suggest not only an evolved economy but also a ceremonial or religious system with strong symbolic codification.
The oldest layers of Troy, as described by Schliemann, reveal—5,000 years ago—a civilization far from primitive. The artifacts speak of shared symbols, archaic iconography that would endure for millennia, and advanced building techniques. Schliemann’s perspective, though shaped by the limitations of his era, managed to grasp essential features of a world that may have belonged less to “myth” than we still assume today.